Organising And Delegating In The Work Place Essay

AC.1.1 Explain the importance of making effective and efficient use of people’s skills while planning a team’s work to achieve an objectives. Organizing is a function of arranging people and resources to work towards goals. To achieve those goals in effective and efficient manner it is important to have a good knowledge of the team’s skills. Lack of motivation in the team, fear of undervaluation or poor attitude could fail the goals and on the other hand enthusiasm, motivation and given responsibility can bring successful results in reaching the goals. In other words the company’s objectives can be failed if the wrong person is chosen for the task. Manager is a person who chooses the right person, give the jobs that are suitable for their skills and proficiencies. To do so an objectives have to be clear and SMART Specific they are clearly understood and no misunderstanding is possible Measurable everyone knows whether they have hit them or not Achievable they are realistic with team’s capabilities Relevant they logically fit to the organizational needs Timed have a target date to be completed. AC.1.2 Explain how to identify the appropriate person for an activity in the workplace. It is very important to have right people on staff to the success of an organization using a skills matrix will confirm the skills, knowledge and interest of the team members. Skill matrix is a simple visual tool to control and monitoring of skills level. It displays all tasks and skills required at work. It also displays current team members and their current ability level for each task. Skill matrix is used to establish all skills required in an area, it quickly highlights available skills and future requirements. Skill matrix shows training needs, its effectiveness. It is a day to day planning tool to use skills where they are most needed also to organize adequate cover for holiday and sickness. This skill matrix shows the team members individually and as a whole team. It shows who needs training and what they need to learn but also who can  train them. The grid also shows that sharing and combining across team we can develop a deeper pool of resources. We can easily shift resources to help in other areas when work accumulates. Cross training and shifting provide individual to develop skills, gives job satisfaction. AC.1.3 Explain how human resource planning can be used to assure output and quality in the workplace Workforce planning in a process designed to integrate and anticipate human resources to an organization’s needs. It is a systematic process for identifying, acquiring and developing employees to meet the needs of the business. In my workplace. In my workplace human resources planning can be divided into weekly/daily planning and long planning. By long term planning I mean events that we have over the year rallies, gatherings, or Christmas parties. We know exactly when those events will take place, we know approx number of guests and this is how we plan our staff demand. We don’t take holidays those times, sometimes we employ some more staff to cover demand. By weekly planning I mean rotas that are created every week so everybody knows what days they are working but also I make sure that there is enough staff for the day. As morning are quiet we don’t need so many staff and then late afternoons and evenings are very busy we need more staff. I also use daily rotas as human resource planning. Every day I plan using section rota who is having what section e.g. desk-seating customer, who is doing till, who is serving in a bar also I plan what side jobs have to be done and who is going to do them. AC.2.1 Explain how to delegate tasks effectively. Delegation is one of the most important management skills. Delegation saves time, develops people and motivates. On the other hand poor delegating can cause frustration, de-motivates other staff and fails to achieve the tasks. How to delegate tasks effectively Define the task. Describe exactly what you want done. Pick the right person Match the requirements of the job to the abilities of the person. Explain the reason why the task needs to be done, its importance, and possible complications that can occur. Determinate standards. Agree on the standards that will be used to measure the success of task’s completion. Determinate  resources necessary to complete the task. It may require money, training, advice and other resources. Agree deadlines. Agree when to job must be finished and how it’s going to be checked and controlled. Support and communicate. Inform others what is going on, involve to talk about the job, to ask questions about the job and how much they understand it. Feedback on results. AC.2.2 Describe the benefits of empowerment in the workplace Employee empowerment is defined as giving employees a degree of autonomy and responsibility for decision-making. The benefits are reduced absenteeism. Absenteeism is a result of employee boredom with their job as they don’t feel personally connected to the company. Empowered employee feels valued and challenged which results in job satisfaction consequently absenteeism decreases. Reduced employee turnover. Employees often leave because they feel not valued. Empowerment increases employees value, understanding their role in company’s success. They are motivated to reach their personal and company’s goals, to develop their capabilities. In result empowering reduces desire to leave the job. Reduced turnover reduces company’s fund to find and train new employees. Employee satisfaction. In companies where employees are given power to identify problems, find solution, make important decisions have responsibilities they feel empowered. They rate their satisfaction as high that leads to higher level of loyalty. Satisfied employees brings better quality of the products or services. Increased productivity. Empowered employees bring their own ideas solutions or methods of work that company can benefit from. Companies can benefit saving money by allowing suggestions and making changes in procedures. Morale. Giving responsibilities, putting employees in charge of their own projects and results of their action increases their morale. Employees know that their ideas, concepts matters for the success of the company they put more effort in their tasks, work more efficiently. A.C. 2.3 Identify barriers to delegation and how these can be overcome Not enough time. Managers think about delegating jobs when the work overwhelmed them. They think its to late to delegate as they have to find appropriate person, train that person and explain the task. When the job is done they don’t feel that urgency. To overcome that problem managers should find time to find person, train and in  the long run when it gets busy again manager can delegate the job and focus on other higher tasks. Losing control. Managers can feel that by delegating they are loosing control. Good way to overcome that fear is to frequently communicate with the person to whom task was delegated check the progress, ask if any support is needed. it can help decrease that fear and give some sense of control. Lack of trust. Some managers don’t trust that the team or individual will do the task. Managers should let person/ team to do the job, make mistake and learn from it. Making mistakes is very good opportunity to learn improve productivity or finding new solution, ideas. AC.2.4 Explain a technique that can be used to monitor the outcomes of delegation in a workplace A manager after delegating needs to make sure that the delegated task is being done correctly and effectively before it’s accomplishment. He must review and monitor progress checking regularly, giving support. Manger should inform about deadlines and established checkpoints. By checking in manager can learn if the person needs any support, has everything needed to finish the task also can learn about the progress. Manager should not interfere too much to the work they delegated as this may imply lack of trust in the other person. There are number of methods used to monitor the outcomes e.g. observation, productivity/data output, feedback from other members, customers etc. The technique I use in my workplace (restaurant) is mostly observation/inspection and spot check. As working in a restaurant we have some hygiene standards that we have to follow. Coffee machines, glass washer, soft drinks dispensers have to be cleaned every day/shift. The only way I can monitor the progress/ accomplishment is by observing if the job is done according to those standards i.e. appropriate detergents are used, if the surfaces are wiped, removable parts washed. I also use a spot check as a method of monitoring. I check tables if they are clean (no stains) if the condiments are stocked up. There are also some side jobs, housekeeping jobs like dusting, spot sweeping and general cleaning which I can inspect later after they’re done. As we are restaurant our purpose is to serve customers when they arrive. If we get busy all of those side jobs/ housekeeping jobs have to be put aside and we are focusing on customers. This is why it is very hard to monitor those side jobs their progress, or accomplishment, sometimes they are not finished, or not being done at all. I have to be flexible when it comes to check the  progress. We won’t start day if some jobs won’t be done or done properly, but there are also jobs that can be skipped.

Commentary on a Newspaper Article by Russel Brand

The English society today is affected by big social differences, which results in a very sharp and clearly defined divided class society, where social mobility is not very easy ore even almost not existing. The lower range haven’t got a place to fit in, and many youngsters from these social lower classes, young people with no education, young people with bad family backgrounds, often feel out of the community, they are not getting any recognition and the politicians have ignored them and the fact of it way too long! In an article published on The Guardian’s website in august 2011, the author Russell Brand pin down some of these conflicts and problems. The author is more explicitly commenting on the riots that happened last year in England. The article’s receiver could be intellectual people, people who have an interest in politics and in society, certainly the working-class, also students as elders, the article is mainly directed to leftist, as the guardian is a traditional left- winged newspaper and the paper stand in opposition to the ruling government. Inasmuch the article is a website article, the audience properly is a bit broader than its ordinary audience is, also assuming readers from the right- wing would have an interest in reading the article, they may even get into a debate on the internet side, fighting and arguing for their point of view. The article very much invites the readers to an open debate. In this next part, I am going to comment and analyze Russel Brand’s commentary, and I am going to comment on his writing style and his attitude to the subject. The article written by Brand’s, is as I have mentioned, a comment on the Riots of 2011 that took place last year in England. Brand points out that the riots says more about the society’s condition than any other thing and that the government should do something about the problem, instead of calling the actions egoistic material gains. He does not think that these young people are mindless as everybody, inclusive the politicians, are calling them. Brand considers the problem much deeper and declares that the government is marginalizing the young people, and says that we ought to ask why the government sweeps the problem away under the carpet. He declares that these young people don’t have a suitable community because the politicians haven’t been given them one and he claims the problem is a consequence of the conservative politics which the government has been carried out the last decades: â€Å"These young people have no sense of community because they haven't been given one. They have no stake in society because Cameron's mentor Margaret Thatcher told us there's no such thing. † All of these very strong points and opinions are of cause wrapped up in a very well written commentary. Brand starts the whole article telling his reader why he should not comment on this case at all, and by doing this, he has pre-empted and prevented that this kind of criticism would come his way. His reasons why he shouldn’t write about the topic in the first place, are very paradoxical which makes it very comically, and at the same time it gives him some kind of credibility cause the reader feels comfortable when a writer dares to look critical at them self and especially when they are also, like Brand, knows how to express a good portion of self-irony . Brand’s writing style is very fluent, he distinctly uses humor as a very well working poetic- device, such as sarcasm and irony. It makes the text much lighter and much more consumable, even though the topic is a tough one. He has a special talent of setting up scenes in his reader’s mind, which also makes the text very alive. The text’s composition has kind of the same setup as a standup comedy show, and Brand sets up several scenarios and merges them well together, connecting the dots all the way through the article with just the right flow. He tells about some personal happenings, which he makes a point with, again with a good portion of self-irony, for example, when he tells his audience about his own rebellion time, and then connects it to today’s youngsters and compares the two episodes to make his point. He uses a great deal of sarcasm, an example for his sarcasm is, the part he writes about, that some may say the real victim is the conservative politician, that had to shorten her holidays and then came out saying the behavior were â€Å"unjustifiable† and â€Å"unacceptable: his comment to this is : Wow! Thanks guys! What a wonderful use of the planet's fast-depleting oxygen resources. Now that's been dealt with can we move on to more taxing matters such as whether or not Jack The Ripper was a ladies' man? † He also uses some metaphors, such as the reality show Big Brother. The Big Brother episode described in the article is a criticism of the TV station because they censured an unfavorable episode, the purpose by using the episode is to set up a mirror reflecting the riots. Brand is actually implying that the government aka Big Brother, does not have the nerves to face reality, which must make the reality show a fake, aka the government is a fake they won’t face reality. Brand claims they are ignoring society’s real big problems by sweeping them under a carpet – that is why Big Brother isn’t watching you – as the title of the article claims. This way of using a known episode as a metaphor, is very effect full, and many people can relate to it and have a opinion and attitude about it. In the last part of the comment, Brand changes from using â€Å"I† to using â€Å"we†. From now on, the article directly speaks to the reader. Brand claims he does not know anything about politics and tells why he clearly can’t have a solution or answer to this issue – again his rhetorical trick is a good portion of self-irony and he closes the paragraph by quoting Gandhi: â€Å"Be the change you want to see in the world. † For some readers this may seem too much, and for others it would be very powerful. I think the quote has a well-functioned purpose in the text – these accurate words shows the reader Brand’s solution to the main problem even though he claims he doesn’t know anything. From here on Brand gets more serious and more poetic in his language use, his syntax, and sentence structures. He clearly wants to make a statement by moving his reader. He is appealing with pathos, and emotional words and you can see he uses a very well-known rhetorical technique, called an Anaphora often used in speeches, which is a repetition of a word or a phrase. â€Å"We must include them, where they feel represented, we must represent them and where they feel love and compassion for their communities then we, the members of that community, must find love and compassion for them† It often gives a very good outcome to repeat word ore sentences, because it supplies the text a consonants, and the reader is seduced by this way of using the language – and I must say, Brand uses the technique so its outcome gets very effective. The last passage sums the whole commenting on the subject up, into some few poetic phrases. Brand clearly comes out with his point of view and attitude – he want his reader not to close their eyes for what is happening – he requests them not to sweep away these problems even if they are not out in the open. I must say Brand is a very talented writer with brilliant skills that touches a broad audience. Besides an observable writing talent, his writing contains a strength approaching a serious problem using humor. Brand’s word combinations makes his text easy to read and he has an adventurous natural flow, which makes it very exciting. However, most important in this commentary, is the attitude to the problem. Brand’s article contains a strong cultural and social criticism and he expresses his wish for individuals to face the injustice unequal society. He encourages his reader to not only leaving it all up by voting on the right party, and not only by leaving it all up to our politicians – who apparently aren’t doing anything about these problems – he encourage his reader to sweep away the carpet and face the problem right out there in the blue by giving the young people what they really need!! Very well said Mr. Russell Brand – I couldn’t agree more!

Proposal Paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Paper - Research Proposal Example kin Park is a modern band comprising six young and energetic gentlemen that are out to introduce a new style of music presentation in the art industry. Armed to the teeth with drum sets, electronic guitars, pianos, violins and many more tools, this band is out to set an example for the other artists who have found creativity quite a heavy laden. Theirs is a mix of rap and a combination of both low pitch and high pitch vocals that is less practised by other rock artists (Linkin Park Biography). The rapping is full of rhymes that will make one want to listen for more and more of their artistry. Most songs are started by rhythmic rapping followed by an interlude of singing of the chorus either high or low pitched (About Linkin Park). In as much as not all of them may be vocalists, they promote a high degree of unity of band members as each one’s contribution to their thirst for success is openly visible. Their songs can entertain the youth most but not restricted as some of their songs are quite slow, and the lyrics can be comprehended even by the middle-aged alike. This is definitely a band to watch out

Mussolini and Matteotti Crisis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Mussolini and Matteotti Crisis - Essay Example He was executed on April 28, 1945 in Milan, Italy when economic depression and military failures in World War II led to his ousting and subsequent persecution. (Benito Mussolini, 2003; Benito Mussolini, 2007; Benito Mussolini) Mussolini began his political career when he became editor to Milan socialist paper "Avanti!" in 1911. A gifted orator and writer, Mussolini was brought to the notice of the socialist movement when he was arrested and imprisoned for leading demonstrators protesting the attack by the Italians on Libya. Under socialist concepts, war was merely a way for the rich to get richer at the expense of the common worker. Under his editorship, the newspaper gained popularity. (Benito Mussolini, 2007) Five months into World War I, however, Mussolini had a change of attitude, regarding war as an opportunity, and for this the socialist party expelled him. In August 1915, Mussolini answered his country's call to arms. In 1917, a mortar bomb signalled his discharge from the army with the rank of corporal. (Benito Mussolini, 2007) Mussolini developed a political ideology to tie in support of his group, later to be known as Fascism because he named the group Fasci di Combattimento or League for Combat. He was not the first to use the word fasci but his party was the most identified with it. (Rise of Mussolini: to 1922, 2006) World War I threw Italy into an economic crisis and the country was in turmoil. In response, Mussolini formed the National Fascist Party in 1919 and people looked to him to bring order into chaos. He formed the Black Shirt militia, officially the squadre d'azione but popularly described as armed thugs that used violence against all who opposed the Fascist party with special preference for socialist, communists and democrats, and little opposition from authorities. (Rise of Mussolini: to 1922, 2006) In 1921, Mussolini and 35 other fellow Fascists became members of the Italian Chamber of Deputies. (Benito Mussolini, 2003) This was partly due to a coalition Mussolini forged with then Prime Mi nister Gioletti, who sought to restore authority over the Italian citizenry, which he promptly broke as soon as he gained membership. (Rise of fascism in Italy under Mussolini, 2007) The Pacification Pact between Mussolini and the socialists in Parliament was an attempt to forge an alliance, but this was strongly opposed by the radical members of the Party, the squadristi, especially by their leaders, the ras. Attempts to disband the squadristi failed and the pact was dissolved. (March on Rome, 2007) The March on Rome and Military Loyalty The ruling Leftist party initiated a general strike against the Fascists in August 1922, and Mussolini saw his opportunity for his party to grab power. Mussolini counted on the indecisiveness of the Italian government under Prime Minister Luigi Facta and the growing discontent of the citizenry to hedge his gamble. He threatened a march to Rome of 40,000 strong Black Shirts, ostensibly as an intervention necessary to uphold a weak government as solidified by its failure to the secure the Italian-speaking town of Fiume as due recognition for the contributions of Italy to World

Strategy Issues in Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Strategy Issues in Marketing - Essay Example Social media is a great marketing strategy for businesses, that being said, businesses need to analyze why it is important to utilize social media to promote a product or service. Questions such as, what are the business' needs, why they are using the site, and who are they trying to target are all relevant in deciding whether or not to incorporate an SNS to the business. Even then there is still a multitude of sites that offer social networking capabilities for different purposes which you have to decide on. The shift from individual company websites to using social media for business has been drastic. Through these sites, companies can get direct information from customers through blogs and forums, in turn, giving the organization the benefit of fulfilling the wants and needs of customers in a more efficient manner. With the reduction in expenses of marketing, by using social media, companies are able to focus the attention more on the customer and offer freebies or giveaways to ac company the social networking campaign. A huge drawcard for companies to advertise on social media is the fact you can tailor your marketing campaign to a specific group of people. By these sites collecting information about the people using them through special algorithms, companies can provide exactly what the consumer desires. The major benefit for business' is the cost saving of getting their company out there. Social media was extensively used in the presidential election of the US in 2008.

Discussion- Ch12 Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Discussion- Ch12 - Coursework Example The growth stage involves a high rate of revenue increase owing to access to additional market and awareness by the customers. Marketing at the growth stage include development of new product features and packaging, increased advertising, and setting of high prices owing to high demand. Entry by competitors to the market reduces revenue growth towards the end of the growth stage. The maturity stage is reached when sales growth decreases but owing to high brand presence advertising is reduced. Product similarity is high reducing differentiation with the marketing mix done through sales promotions, price reductions, produce feature modifications, and innovative distribution channels aimed at extension of product lifecycle and maintenance of market share. Saturation of the market, technological obsolete products, and changes in customer tastes results in sales decline. The other features of the decline stage include increasing costs from reduced production volumes causing lack of profitability. Marketing at the decline stage includes reduction in product offerings, lowering of prices, little promotion expenditure, and selective distribution. After reading Liang’s discussion, I believe he articulates the concepts in product lifecycle well though he does not provide the marketing techniques for use at the introduction stage. The discussion does not state the marketing strategies in the growth and maturity stages but rather treats the two distinct stages together in terms of marketing. The decline stage marketing strategies are not well analysed. Overall the discussion is informative on the product life cycle but not clear on the different marketing strategies applied at various stages of the product

Aesthetics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Aesthetics - Essay Example Those belonging to the former school of thought contest that beauty lies only "in the eye of the beholder" whereas the latter claim that aesthetic characteristics exist independently of the mind. Ultimately the question is whether the aesthetic quality is subjective or objective and if it is possible to have objective standards of taste. An attempt has been made to answer this question by comparing and critically analyzing the works of Hume, Kant and Bell on the issue of aesthetic judgment and taste.Hume was an empiricist; he believed that all knowledge was derived exclusively from the senses based on individual perception and resulting from experience. Thus his viewpoint is essentially subjective. He feels that aesthetic enjoyment comes from deep within and one needs "that delicacy of imagination" without which one will be unable to appreciate the finer points of great art. Sentiment is another factor which affects one's reaction to works of art. There is no right or wrong sentiment because it "has a reference to nothing beyond itself". Beauty is another quality that "exists merely in the mind". And yet in the midst of all this subjectivity he never implies that aesthetic judgement is entirely personal. In fact common sense which he sets much store by indicates that responses may be right or wrong but some are invariably much better than others.Hume seeks to establish a standard of taste, "a rule" that works by "confirming one sentiment, and condemning another." He prescribes five factors that are prerequisites for a true judge - "Strong sense united to delicate sentiment, improved by practice, perfected by comparison and cleared of all prejudice". This standard attempts to adhere to the universal principles of taste while smoothing out individual differences. However there are two factors which prevent the functioning of the standard mechanism - "the one is the different humours of particular men; the other, the particular manners and opinions of our age and country". And on this note we can conclude Hume's account of aesthetic judgement. IMMANUEL KANT: THE CRITIQUE OF AESTHETIC JUDGEMENT Kant is the father of modern aesthetics. His invaluable contribution to philosophy at large and aesthetics in particular has consolidated his position as one of the most influential thinkers of all time. At the very onset of the essay Kant states that beauty is discerned "by means of the imagination" in conjunction with understanding as opposed to "a view of cognition". Feelings of pleasure or displeasure play a pivotal role in aesthetic judgement. Pleasure is merely a mental state and it has nothing to do with the properties of the object that elicits the response. Thus according to Kant, the "determining ground" is largely subjective. However there is scope for objectivity under certain controlled circumstances. Kant asserts that the element of interest in the judgement of aesthetic quality tends to be "partial and not a pure judgement of taste". A complete state of "disinterestedness" coupled with the imagination and naked perception must be preserved for effective judgement. If this state can be affected it is possible to arrive at a judgement that has "universal validity". CLIVE BELL: THE AESTHETIC HYPOTHESIS Bell does not mince words in his aesthetic hypothesis. He states that "The starting point for all systems of aesthetics must be the personal experience of a peculiar emotion." Of course the same work of art may provide different emotions in different people but "there is a particular kind of emotion" which is common to all kinds of "visual art". This aesthetic emotion may or may not be felt by people as it is

Evidence-Based Practice Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Evidence-Based Practice - Coursework Example orts nursing and healthcare by exploring what this practice is all about and how it is associated to patients’ care and the value it adds in the process. Evidences are perceived to be different are dependent on geographical conditions, characteristics of healthcare services available, economic situations, and others which make the experiences of patients vary. It is developed that decision making processes in nursing involve defining: (a) outcomes of treatment administered and preventing negative outcomes such as pain, inconvenience, and side effects among others (b) rational treatment alternatives (c) possible positive outcomes of treatment that are beneficial to patients. Thus, the effort to find answers that are linked to the three cases enables good judgments about the nature of treatment recommended. Evidence is used to determine this connection between the outcomes and alternatives in consideration to each patient’s experience (DiCenso et al., 2005: 155-158). Fineout-Overholt et al (2005) explains the evidence-based practice process. As described above, the first step involves asking clinical questions that basically cover the experiences of each patient. This step is considered as one that is most significant and challenging to the nursing profession. That is, if the information gathered is not accurate, the entire process is faulted. The formulation of the questions is said should be searchable and easy to answer comprehensively from research studies, clinical expertise and patients’ experiences. The second step as appreciated above is the search for the best evidence that will answer the question raised in the first step. This question enables nurses or clinicians to identify relevant databases using keywords and also which studies are appropriate to review in terms of their quality strengths. The other step is appraising the reviewed evidence in terms of the significance and validity of their results and the contributions they make to the

The Federal Government Should Provide Financial support for stem cell Research Paper

The Federal Government Should Provide Financial support for stem cell - Research Paper Example That is, they are progenitor cells that can become any part of the body, they self-rebuild. Such cells are referred to as the human stem cells. In the human body, they are only found in the brain, bone marrow, skin and liver. They can repair moderate damage (Forman, 2007, pgs. 1-6). Another kind of stem cell, however, is more versatile and is referred to, as the embryonic stem cells. They come from embryos or unborn humans in the very earliest stages of life. To be used in stem cell research, they must be less than one-week-old (Forman, 2007, pg. 8). It is these cells, which can develop into every cell in the body. They are the source of debate over stem cell research and the role that the federal government should play in the funding of such research. This paper will highlight the benefits that the citizens of the United States will gain from all forms of stem cell research, which are funded by the federal government. It will also outline the gains that would be reaped if the federa l government failed to fund such research and the funds are channeled to other sectors of the economy whose results are more assured. Stem Cell Research Stem cell research involves the study of both embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells. ... 202-203). Stem cell research has known an enormous development and cellular transplantation and holds a great promise for regenerative medicine. Scientists present stem cell research as the key to several potential applications in research, drug discovery and trans-plantation medicine (Lynch, 2011, pg. 20). Arguments For and Against Federal Government Funding to Stem Cell Research Participants in the public debate surrounding human embryonic stem cell research and the administration’s funding policy have addressed themselves to many complicated and difficult ethical matters. As many people as are for government funding are also against government funding towards stem cell research, particularly, embryonic stem cell research. Arguments against Government Funding The predominant reason why the federal government should not fund the stem cell research program revolves around issues moral and ethics. They should not fund stem cell research because the use of embryonic stem cells w ill result to the embryo being destroyed. An embryo is a human life on equal standing with any other human life and it is wrong to destroy human life for any reason, even if it is with the goal of saving another (Forman, 2007, pgs. 27-28). The federal government funding of such research will be paramount to aiding in committing murder albeit not murder as is recognized by the law. It would be wrong to use tax dollars to encourage the destruction of human embryos. Not everyone is a fan of federal government funding for stem cell research. Some people argue that with individual states are taking much of the financial burden, the federal government should stay out of the more controversial aspects of stem cell science, such as work involving human embryos. They point out that in vitro

To what extent Essay Example for Free

To what extent Essay For Romans, religion and politics were inseparable, for example, priests were always senators. Augustus needed to be seen as an emperor if he wanted to be one, he used religion to do this; a religious figure would never have been challenged, they were respected and obeyed. When Augustus became pontifex maximus in 12 BC he became, not only the saecular head of the Roman Empire, but the religious leader as well. Augustus used religion to reorganise the state, establish his own legislations and revive old festivals and ceremonies. However, although the advantages to himself were clear, he needed to be aware of Caesar’s fate and not offend tradition. Augustus knew that he had to be very careful about how he went about things in Rome but, in the East, it was a lot more acceptable as the people were already used to worshipping their leaders. If he could be worshipped in the East first, it may make it easier to be worshipped in Rome itself later on. In private it suited Augustus to be integrated with state religion, as demonstrated in the Res Gestae; â€Å"I was pontifex maximus, augur, quindecemviri sacris faciundis†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . However, in public Augustus had to appear respectful of traditional practice, as shown on the Ara Pacis. After his death Augustus could be worshipped with no issues, during his lifetime however, it was in no way acceptable. Augustus had to resist the creation of an imperial cult during his lifetime to avoid losing all popular support and ending in the same way as his predecessor did. This said, the creation of an imperial cult, if successful, would bring together the disparate provinces that he governed, bringing not only power but also prestige. An imperial cult was the mass veneration of not only Augustus’ genius, but that of his family and successors. Being a member of the Julian line, he already had some claim to a link with the Gods. Augustus’ Prima Porta, fashioned in a Hellenistic style, not only shows his pietas, but his link with the God of Love, Venus. Clinging to his body is cupid riding a dolphin; as cupid is the sibling of Aenus who founded the Julian line, the direct message that he is involved with the Gods is already being propagated. Equally, the fact that Caesar had been made a deity, established the notion that he was a semi-deity in the minds of many Romans. In the Mediterranean world, Augustus’ provinces were singular in that the citizens of Rome would have regarded treating your ruler as a deity as sacrilegious and immoral. Conversely, in the East, this was not only acceptable, but also demanded. Ptolemaic Egypt was cult-like and worshipped pharaohs as Gods. Due to heterogeneous territories, religion was seen as a uniting factor for rulers to forge links between the populace and themselves. The idea of Augustus openly declaring himself as a deity during his lifetime was an impossibility that would have led to exile or assassination. However, just as Caesar had supposedly risen to the heavens to be immortalised as a deity after his death, he too could be worshipped like this. The evidence of this is demonstrated by the construction of various temples built to him after his death in AD 14; for example, the Temple to Divus Augustus is shown on the Denarius of AD 158. Moreover, Suetonius’s Life of Augustus shows us ways in which, rather than being an innovator of a new imperial cult, Augustus actually restored traditional religious practices. By appearing to ‘buy into’ the conservatism of Roman religion, Augustus would have pleased the tradionalist majority and allowed his continuing expansionist military effort and transgression of the cursus honourum, without worry of religious misdemeanour. Suetonius describes his burning of â€Å"anonymous or unrespected authors† keeping only the sibylline books. He also revived certain rites such as the Augury of Safety, the flamen dialis, the Lupercalia, the Saecular Games and the Compitalia. Additionally, he extended the number and prestige of priesthoods. This demonstrated the difference between Augustus’ private and public goals; whereas privately he wished to integrate himself into state religion, publically he had to show piety and respect towards tradition. As previously noted, in the Res Gestae, Augustus lists his religious powers and titles; considering that the Res Gestae was effectively an autobiography, it can be inferred that this was received positively as he was satisfied to publish this on stele, it is also evident that the Res Gestae was propaganda designed to influence and so can not be deemed as a reliable, nor objective source. Prompting the creation of an imperial cult would have enshrined Augustus as a deity, given him infinite power to develop his empire and secured his legacy forever. However, it was vital that he treaded the delicate line between paying lip service to Roman conservatism whilst at the same time, attempting to set himself above, and apart from, the average Roman politician. Associating himself with Roman deities was an ideal way of achieving this goal and there is a huge range of evidence that he did very little to resist this. Indeed, it is quite possible that he actually endorsed it. Suetonius describes how he renamed the month Sextilis, to August and therefore â€Å"put†¦ straight† the calendar. Equally, the Horologium Augusti in the Campus Martius, an immense sundial drew attention to Augustus in a manner unavailable to other Romans. The Serviri Augustutales at Narbo of AD 12-13 was altar dedicated to Augustus. It proclaimed that the Julian ancestral colony of Narbo Martinius had â€Å"bound themselves to worship his divinity for ever†. Additionally, the Temple of Augustus at Pula (built between 2 BC and AD 14) and the Temple of Augustus at Tarraco were also built. The Temple of Augustus at Pula had a dedication reading â€Å"Roma and Augustus Caesar, son of deity, father of the fatherland† indicating that the temple was primarily dedicated to the goddess Roma, the personification of Rome, making himself a secondary figure to the City in order to not be seen to be encouraging the creation of an imperial cult. It could be argued that, if Augustus was genuinely against the worship of himself and his family, he would have prevented provincials from establishing temples in his name despite the fact that the Hellenistic practice of ruler-worship was well established in certain provinces. However, the evidence suggests that this was not the case as Augustus did little to nothing to prevent the construction of such temples. Indeed, Augustus, upon hearing that the people of Tarraco had reported a palm tree had grown on an altar to him, is recorded by Quintilian to have responded, â€Å"That shows how often you light a fire there†. This clearly opposes the view that he shrinked from such worship as it suggests he encouraged it. However, as Quintilian wrote this decades after the event may have happened, the reliability of this source must be questioned. Furthermore, the aureus of 19 BC depicts the Altar of Fortuna Redux, an altar at the Porta Capena to the Home-bringer, praising her for Augustus’ safe return. This was also the site of the festival of Augustalia; the act of having sacred festivals dedicated to you was naturally a privilege usually reserved to the Gods. Furthermore, the close proximity of Temple of Apollo Palatinus with Augustus’ house blurred the lines between his numen and his power as they came together as an imperial residence. The Hymn of the Salii, or Carmen Saeculare was the song of the ‘leaping priests’ of Mars, keepers of the ancilia and undoubtedly revered positions. The fact that they added his name to this god-praising song was highly unconventional and a bold move if Augustus had ordered this. Augustus evidently sponsored Augustan Literature, through Maecenus’ patronage of several poets. There are many clear examples of Augustus either being associated with the Gods in literature, or being portrayed as god himself. There is no doubt that Augustus knew about these comparisons prior to recital or publication and therefore encouraged these attempts to link himself with deities. Virgil’s Aeneid is the prime example of this; the poem depicts Augustus descending from heaven with â€Å"Iulus†, loaded with the wealth of Egypt of the â€Å"Orient’s spoils† and that â€Å"he too shall be called upon in prayer†. To add to this emphasis of his connection with Iulus, the building of the Temple to Divus Julius in the Forum Romanum and the Temple to Mars Ultor in the forum of Augustus both underline his connection to the semi-deity Caesar through his completion of filial duty. Horace’s Odes 1. 2 similarly shows Augutus as the gods’ ‘right hand man’. Horace describes the moral decline and religious neglect of the period of civil war and strife and Augustus is called forth to atone for previous sins and to â€Å"aid the crumbling Empire†. Such glowing accounts of Augutus can be explained as many of the poets were convalescing from lost estates from civil war times and, through indirect sponsorship from Augustus, were expected to translate underlying messages of the regime into poetry. Naturally, this kind of blatant worshiping was only acceptable in the abstract medium of poetry, as poetry was known to exaggerate reality and stretch any possible truth. Overall, the weight of evidence tends to suggest that Augustus did not try particularly hard to resist the creation of an imperial cult during his lifetime. Although he showed piety and respect to tradition throughout his reign, his sanctioning and, often encouragement, of provincials worshipping him demonstrated that he wished to be classed as a divine being as it meant that he would have gained all possible power. The creation of an imperial cult resulted in an almost tyrannical rule, where Augustus could not be questioned.

The Role Of Sunnah In Islamic Jurisprudence Theology Religion Essay

The Role Of Sunnah In Islamic Jurisprudence Theology Religion Essay Literally, Sunnah means a clear path or a beaten track but it has also been used to imply normative practice, or an established course of conduct. It may be a good example or a bad, and it may be set by an individual, a sect or a community. In pre-Islamic Arabia, the Arabs used the word Sunnah in reference to the ancient and continuous practice of the community which they inherited from their forefathers. The Sunnah, according to the scholars of hadeeths, is everything that has been related from the Messenger (SAW), of his statements, actions, tacit approvals, personality, physical description, or biography.   It does not matter whether the information being related refers to something before the beginning of his prophetic mission, or after it. The statements of the Prophet include everything the Prophet said for various reasons on different occasions. The actions of the Prophet include everything that the Prophet did that was related to us by his Companions.   This includes how he made ablutions, how he performed his prayers, and how he made the Hajj pilgrimage. The tacit approvals of the Prophet includes everything that his Companions said or did that he either showed his favor towards or at least did not object to.   Anything that had the tacit approval of the Prophet is as valid as anything that he said or did himself. An adequate answer to the question as to whether the Sunnah is a mere supplement to the Quran or a source in its own right necessitates an elaboration of the relationship of the Sunnah to the Quran is tried in the following paragraphs: The Holy Quran is the foundation of Islamic Law.   It is the miraculous speech of Allah that was revealed to the Messenger, may the mercy and blessings of Allah be upon him, by way of the angel Gabriel.   It has been transmitted to us with so many chains of authority that its historical authenticity is unquestionable.   It is written down in its own volume, and its recitation is a form of worship. As for the Sunnah, it is everything besides the Holy Quran that came from Allahs Messenger.   It explains and provides details for the laws found in the Holy Quran.   It also provides examples of the practical application of these laws.   It is also either direct revelation from Allah, or decisions of the Messenger that were then confirmed by revelation.   Therefore, the source of all the Sunnah is revelation. The Holy Quran takes precedence over the Sunnah in two ways.   For one thing, the Holy Quran consists of the exact words of Allah, miraculous in nature, down to the last verse.   The Sunnah, however, is not necessarily the exact words of Allah, but rather their meanings as explained by the Holy Prophet (SAW). The Position of the Sunnah in Islamic Law During the Messengers lifetime the Holy Quran and Sunnah were the only sources of Islamic Law. The Holy Quran provides the general injunctions that formed the basis of the Law, without going into all the details and secondary legislation, with the exception of a few injunctions that are established along with the general principles.   These injunctions are not subject to change over time or with the changing circumstances of the people.   The Holy Quran, likewise, comes with the tenets of belief, sets down acts of worship, mentions the stories of the nations of old, and provides moral guidelines. The Sunnah comes in agreement with the Holy Quran.   It explains the meanings of what is unclear in the text, provides details for what is depicted in general terms, specifies what is general, and explains its injunctions and objectives.   The Sunnah also comes with injunctions that are not provided by the Holy Quran, but these are always in harmony with its principles, and they always advance the objectives that are outlined in the Holy Quran. The Sunnah is a practical expression of what is in the Holy Quran.   This expression takes many forms.   Sometimes, it comes as an action performed by the Messenger.   At other times, it is a statement that he made in response to something.   Sometimes, it takes the form of a statement or action of one of the Companions that he neither prevented nor objected to.   On the contrary, he remained silent about it or expressed his approval for it. The Sunnah explains and clarifies the Holy Quran in many ways.   It explains how to perform the acts of worship and carry out the laws that are mentioned in the Holy Quran.   Allah commands the believers to pray without mentioning the times that the prayers had to be performed or the manner of performing them.   The Messenger clarified this through his own prayers and by teaching the Muslims how to pray.   He said: Pray as you have seen me praying. Allah makes the Hajj pilgrimage obligatory without explaining its rites.   Allahs Messenger explains this by saying: Take the rites of Hajj from me. Allah makes the Zakat obligatory without mentioning what types of wealth and produce it is to be levied against.   Allah also does not mention the minimum amount of wealth that makes the tax obligatory.   The Sunnah, though, makes all this clear. The Sunnah specifies general statements found in the Holy Quran.   Allah says: Allah commands you regarding your children: to the male, a portion equal to that of two femalesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Holy Quran 4:11) This wording is general, applying to every family and making every child an inheritor of his or her parents.   The Sunnah makes this ruling more specific by excluding the children of Prophets.   Allahs Messenger (SAW) said: We Prophets leave behind no inheritance.   Whatever we leave behind is charity. The Sunnah qualifies unqualified statements in the Holy Quran.   Allah says: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦and you find no water, then perform tayammum (dry ablution) with clean earth and rub therewith your faces and handsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Holy Quran 5:6) The verse does not mention the extent of the hand, leaving the question of whether one should rub the hands up to the wrist or the forearm.   The Sunnah makes this clear by showing that it is to the wrist, because this is what Allahs Messenger did when he performed dry ablution. The Sunnah also comes emphasizing what is in the Holy Quran or providing secondary legislation for a law stated therein.   This includes all the hadeeths that indicate that Prayer, the Zakat, fasting, and the Hajj pilgrimage are obligatory. An example of where the Sunnah provides subsidiary legislation for an injunction found in the Holy Quran is the ruling found in the Sunnah that it is forbidden to sell fruit before it begins to ripen.   The basis for this law is the statement of the Holy Quran: Do not consume your property amongst you unjustly, except it is a trade among you by mutual consent. The Sunnah contains rulings that are not mentioned in the Holy Quran and that do not come as clarifications for something mentioned in the Holy Quran.   An example of this is the prohibition of eating donkey flesh and the flesh of predatory beasts.   Another example of this is the prohibition of marrying a woman and her aunt at the same time.   These and other rulings provided by the Sunnah must be adhered to. The Obligation of Adhering to the Sunnah A requirement of believing in Prophet-hood is to accept as true everything that Allahs Messenger (SAW) said.   Allah chose His Messengers (SAW) from among His worshippers to convey His Law to humanity.   Allah says: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Allah knows best with whom to place His Messageà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Holy Quran 6:124) Allah also says: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Are the Messengers charged with anything but to convey the clear Message? (Holy Quran 16:35) The Messenger is protected from error in all of his actions.   Allah has protected his tongue from uttering anything but the truth.   Allah has protected his limbs from doing anything but what is right. Allah has safeguarded him from showing approval for anything contrary to Islamic Law.   In conclusion, it may be said that both sides are essentially in agreement on the authority of Sunnah as a source of law and its principal role in relationship to the Quran. They both acknowledge that the Sunnah contains legislation which is not found in the Holy Quran. The difference between them seems to be one of interpretation rather than substance. The Quranic ayat on the duty of obedience to the Holy Prophet (SAW), and those which assign to him the role of the interpreter of the Quran, are open to variant interpretations. These passages have been quoted in support of both the views, that the Sunnah is supplementary to the Quran, and that it is an independent source. The point which is basic to both these views is the authority of the Holy Prophet (SAW) and the duty of adherence to his Sunnah. In the meantime, both sides acknowledge the fact that the Sunnah contains legislation which is additional to the Quran. When this is recognized, the rest of the debate becomes largely redundant. He (SAW) is the most beautifully complete of Allahs Creations.   This is clear from how Allah describes him in the following verses of Holy Quran: By the star when it sets.   Your companion has neither gone astray nor has he erred.   Nor does he speak of his own desire.   It is only revelation that has been revealed. (Holy Quran 53:1-4) QUESTION: Kamali asserts that The essential unity of Shariaah lies in the degree of harmony that is achieved between revelation and reason. Ijtihad is the principal instrument of maintaining this harmony. Discuss how personal reasoning (Ijtihad) has helped to develop Islamic jurisprudence? ANSWER: 1. Introduction: Ijtihad played an important role in the development of Islamic legal theory. The aim of this essay is to discuss the concept of Ijtihad in the development of the Islamic legal theory. Thus it will not be out of place to give a brief introduction of the concept of Ijtihad. 2. Ijtihad: The Arabic word Ijtihad is derived from the Juhud which means expending of maximum effort in the performance of an act. In Islamic jurisprudence Ijtihad means the effort made by the Mujtahid in seeking knowledge of the Ahkam (Rules) of the Shariaah through interpretation. (Nyazyee, Ch. 14: P. 263). This definition implies the following: That the Mujtahid should expend the maximum effort, that is, he should work to the limits of his ability so much so that he realize his inability to go any further. That, the person expending the effort should be a Mujtahid. An effort expended by non-Mujtahid is of no consequence, because he is not qualified to do so. The effort should be directed towards the discovery of the Rules of the Shariaah that pertain to the conduct. The method of discovery of the Rules should be through interpretation of the texts with the help of other sources. This excludes the memorization of such Rules from the books of Fiqh or their identification by the Mufti. Thus, the activity of the Faqih and the Mufti cannot be called Ijtihad. 3. The Three Modes of Ijtihad: The Jurists in general practice three types or modes of Ijtihad. In reality, the activity of the jurist cannot be split up into separate modes. Ijtihad is single seamless process, but for simplification and ease of understanding this activity is divided into three types as follows; In the first mode, the Jurist stay as close to the text as he can. He focuses on the literal meaning of the texts, that is, he follows the plain meaning Rule. When the first mode of literal construction is exhausted by the Jurists, he turns to syllogism, which is Qiyas. This mode is confined to strict types of analogy. These are called Qiyas Al-Mana and Qiyas Al.illah. The second mode of Ijtihad is confine to the extension of the law from individual texts, while in the third mode the reliance is on all the texts considered collectively. This means legal reasoning is undertaken more in the line with the spirit of the law and its purposes rather than the confines of the individual texts. 4. Role of Ijtihad in the development of Islamic legal theory. Early notion of Islamic legal theory and the concept of Ijtihad: At the time of the Holy Prophet (SAW) the only source of the Shariaah was revelation. That revelation had two types, one was the direct speech of Allah, namely the Holy Quran, and the other was indirect speech of Allah which the Holy Prophet (SAW) expressed in his own words, that is termed as Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (SAW). The Holy Quran by nature is implicit. It does not provide details of each and every individual case, rather it describes general principles, examples etc. the Holy Prophet (SAW) used to explain and implement those principles and general rules in individual cases, that is Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (SAW), in that sense the Sunnah is the explanation of the Holy Quran, though as it is mentioned earlier that explanation was also directed by the God. Although as it is mentioned earlier that the only source of law at that time was revelation, but some time the Holy Prophet (SAW) practiced Ijtihad in its narrow sense in the absence of reveled rule(s) as the Holy Prophet (SAW) said, when I do not receive a revelation I adjudicate among you on the basis of my opinion (Abu Dawud, 1984:1017). However, the difference of that Ijtihad with ordinary Ijtihad bil ray is that whenever, He (SAW) mistook, a verse would be revealed in order to inform him the correct decision. For instance, once the Holy Prophet (SAW) was asked by a woman about the rule of dhihar. The Holy Prophet (SAW) answered her I dont think that the rule is different from that of divorce. Then Allah revealed verses regarding the hukum of dhihar, which was not similar to divorce and then the hukum of dhihar had been corrected. The companion of the prophet used to do Ijtihad at that time also. When the Prophet was not available or when the Prophet sent them to somewhere, they use to do Ijtihad in the absence of explicit Quranic verse or Sunnah of the Prophet. They use to interpret the verses of the Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet as well as in cases of completely new issues they use to do Ijtihad on the basis of the principles of Shariaah. The advantage of them was if they mistook they could correct themselves by asking the Prophet or Allah would revealed the correct rule(s). Therefore, Shariaah was very much based on the revelation at that time, i.e. either Allah would reveal the hukum of a certain masala or He would approve the decision(s) of the Prophet and his companions or He would disapproved and correct their decision(s). Hence, despite the fact that the practice of Ijtihad was started from that time, but it did not get the status of a source of Islamic legal theory then. Development of Islamic legal theory and the concept of Ijtihad: After the death of the Holy Prophet (SAW), the gate of revelation has been closed for ever. Therefore, in order to deal with new problems, the companions of the Holy Prophet (SAW) used to depend on the Ijtihad. However, it did not substitute the Holy Quran and Sunna at all, rather whenever they faced a new phenomenon regarding which they did not know any Quranic verse or Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (SAW), they used to ask the other companions whether they knew any Hadith of the Holy Prophet (SAW) concerning that. They used to do Ijtihad in the absence of the revealed rule and whenever they found any Hadith regarding that case they use to abandon their Ijtihad and followed that Hadith. Because of the quick expansion of the Muslim world in first century, a huge number of people embraced Islam. A number of the companions of the Holy Prophet (SAW) migrated to different places in order to teach the new Muslims the science of Islam. People gathered around them to learn Islam. Through their teaching they created groups of scholars. Those groups were the producers of the different schools of thought. Two distinctive trends of thought emerged at that time, namely Ahl al-Ray and Ahl al-Hadith. The trend of Ahl al-ray can be traced back to the second caliph Hazrat Umar (RA) and a renowned companion Hazrat Abdullah ibn Masud (RA), whereas the trend of Ahl al-Hadith can be traced back from two renowned companions and scholars Hazrat Zaid Bin Thabit and Hazrat Abdullah Bin Umar (RA) (Abdur Rahim,2003:55). Ahl al-ray are those who depend on personal opinion (Ijtihad bil ray) in order to solve the problems and analyze the Ahkam of Shariaah and extract the major causes of those in order to draw out those to new phenomenas. Ahl al-Hadiths are those who depend on only authentic evidences. There strategy is to express exactly what is in the authentic narrations. They do not involve in causation of the Ahkam of Shariaah and extend those to new phenomenas. Nevertheless, the more the Muslims faced new problems the more the former trend became prominent, because of their wide practice of Ijtihad they could solve the new phenomenas better than Ahl al-Hadith School of thought. However, Ahl al-Hadith school of thought did not completely deny or overlook the concept of Ijtihad. Ijtihad also played a big role in the development of that school of thought. However, their concept of Ijtihad was narrower than that of Ahl al-Ray as discussed in the following section of the essay. Hence, it could be said that by the end of first century, Ijtihad became an important source of Islamic jurisprudence through the practice of it by the companions of the Holy Prophet (SAW) and their followers, although there were difference of opinion among them about the definition, scope and way of practice of it. Institutionalization of Islamic legal theory and the role of Ijtihad in it: The last companion of the Holy Prophet (SAW) died in the end of the first hijra. Around that time the process of institutionalization and compilation of Islamic jurisprudence started. The notion of Madhhad (School of thought) emerged at that time in different places. Although there were countless Madhhabs, but, apart from four Madhhabs others are not existed now a day.   We will discuss here the development of those four Madhhabs and the concept of Ijtihad in those. Hanafi school of thought: Hanafi school of thought is based on the jurisprudence of Imam Abu Hanifa. The Usul of Imam Abu Hanifa as he describes, is as follow: If I find any hukum in the Holy Quran, I confined myself with that. If I do not find that there, I accept Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (SAW) which has come to me through authentic narrators. When I do not find that in the Holy Quran and in the Sunnah, I follow the opinion of the companions meaning their general consensuses. In case of their disagreement with each other I accept or abandon which ever I want, but I do not prefer others opinion over theirs. In case of the opinion of others, I have the right of Ijtihad as well as they have. The Maliki School of thought: The Maliki Madhhad is based on the jurisprudence of Imam Malik (93-179 A.H.). The method of his jurisprudence which is the method of Maliki Madhhad as well is that, in order to find out the hukum of a certain issue he first used to look in the Holy Quran, if it is not available in the Holy Quran then he used to look it in the Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (SAW). Similarly if the Quran describes the principle or indirect hukum of the issue he also used to search the Sunnah in order to find out the details of that. He used to consider the practice of Ahl-Medina as Mutawatir Hadith. If he did not find the solution in the Holy Quran or in Hadith he would refer to the general consensus of the companions who were known as faqih, if there were no general consensus regarding that matter then he would follow the individual opinions of the companions or would do Qiyas. If it was an abstract matter where there is no room for Ijtihad bil ray then he would follow the op inion of a companion, else he would prefer Ijtihad bil ray. Al-Shafi School of thought: Imam Al-Shafi emerged during the period of the compilation of the above mentioned two school of thoughts jurisprudence. He is credited as the inventor of Usul al Fiqh. However, Kamali argues that the Usul al-Fiqh was existed before but until the time of Al-Shafi it was not in a form of science. Imam Al-Shafi authored a book regarding the principles and rules of jurisprudence namely Al-Risalah, which is considered as the first book on Usul al-Fiqh (Kamali, 1991:3, 4). The motivations which prompted Al-Shafi to introduce the usul al-Fiqh are some inconsistencies which he observed in the discourses of his predecessors. He mentioned those in the beginning of his book kitabul Umm. It is appear from the reform activity of Al-Shafi that the objective of that was to make the Ijtihad systematic and to demolish the tendency of unconditional imitation of the predecessors Fatwas and hence to reopen and widen the scope of Ijtihad. Although, he excluded Ray from the category of Ijtihad, especially he was critical about Istihsan, and emphasized more on qias but he made the point clear that he is against the following of ones personal whim and amounts to unjustified legislations. Conclusion: In conclusion, it can be argued that Ijtihad played an important role in the development of Islamic legal theory. It appears from the essay that some of the school of thought emerged as a reaction against Taqlid or blind imitation of predecessors and the objective of them was to reopen and widen the gate of Ijtihad. QUESTION: In Islamic legal theory the law preceded society and is considered to be eternal as Allah. Explain, how todays states, with elected governments and independent judiciaries apply these rules of law. ANSWER. Introduction: The Holy Quran is a complete code for mankind and provides guidance for man in all walks of his life. It has its own concepts of ethics, politics, economics and sociology. It is an irony of fate that, now a days the demand for the enforcement of the Islamic law has come to surrounded by such a thick mist of misgivings that a mere reference to it raises a storm of criticism not only in non Islamic but even in Islamic countries also. Thus for instance, the questions are asked: Can a centuries old legal system be adequate to fulfill the requirements of our modern state and society. To be sure, these questions are not the outcome of any antagonism towards Islam but mostly of sheer ignorance which must quite naturally breed suspicion. The first task, therefore, is to explain to people the meaning and applications of Islamic Law, Its objectives, its Spirit, its Structure and its categorical and unchangeable injunctions along with the reasons of their permanence. They should also be informed of the dynamic element of Islamic Law and how it guarantees the fulfillment of ever increasing needs of the progressive human society in every age. Islamic Law: The establishment of political authority which may enforce Islamic Law requires a Constitutional Law and Shariaah clearly laid down its fundamentals. The Shariaah has provided answers to the following basic questions of Constitutional Law. What is the basic theory of the state? What is the source of the authority of its legislation? What are the guiding principles of state policy? What are the qualifications of the ruler of an Islamic State? What are the objectives of an Islamic state? In whom does the sovereignty reside and what are the different organs of the state? What is the mode of distribution of power between different organs of the state, viz.: Legislature, the Executive and the Judiciary? What are the conditions of Citizenship? What are the rights and duties of Muslim Citizens and what are the rights of non Muslim citizen? The guidance which the Shariaah has provided in respect to these questions constitutes the Constitution of Islam. Besides laying down the fundamentals of Constitutional Law, the Shariaah has also enunciated the basic principles of Administrative Law. Beside that there are precedents in administrative practice established by Holy Prophet (SAW) and the first four rightly guided Caliphs of Islam (Khulfah-e-Rashidin). For instance, the Shariaah enumerates the sources of income permissible for an Islamic State and those which are prohibited. It also prescribes the avenues of the expenditure. It lays down rules of conduct for Police, the Judiciary and Administrative machinery. Elected Governments and Islamic Law: The Holy Quran and Holy Prophet (SAW) encourage Muslims to decide their affairs in consultation with those who will be affected by that decision. The concept of consultation is known as SHURA in Islam. Shura is an Arabic word for consultation. Majlis al-Shura and a Parliament Many traditional Sunni Islamic Jurists agree that to be in keeping with Islam, a government should have some form of council of consultation or Majlis al Shura, although it must recognize that sovereignty belongs to ALLAH ALMIGHTY and not the people. Jurists have written that members of the Majlis should satisfy following three conditions: They must be just, They have enough knowledge Islamic Injunctions to distinguish a good caliph from a bad one, and They have sufficient wisdom and judgment to select the best caliph. Many contemporary Muslims have compared the concept of Shura to the principles of western parliamentary democracy. For example: What is the Shura principle in Islam? It is predicated on three basic precepts. First, that all persons in any given society are equal in human and civil rights. Second, those public issues are best decided by majority view. And third, that the three other principles of justice, equality and human dignity, which constitute Islams moral core, are best realized, in personal as well as public life, under Shura governance. Judiciary and Islamic Laws: Islam is the religion that Allah wants for mankind from the time that He sent Holy Prophet (SAW) shows great concern for the judicial system and those appointed to carry out its responsibilities. Islam prescribes for it many legal injunctions. How else could it be, when Islam is the religion of mercy, equality, and justice? It is the religion that comes to free people from worshipping Creation and bring them to the worship of Allah. It is the religion that comes to remove people from oppression and iniquity and bring them to the highest degree of justice and freedom. Allahs Messenger (SAW) was the greatest of judges. He used to act in the capacity of judge in the city of Medina, which was the first Islamic state. He used to appoint people to be judges in other cities In the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, the head of state continued to be the one to appoint judges, govern their affairs, protect their independence, and keep the governors and political appointees and even the Caliphs subject to the judges verdicts. Hazrat Umar bin al-Khattà ¢b (R.A.), the second Caliph, was the first person to make the judge an independent entity, distinct from the Caliph and the governors. So it was Islam that not only called for independent Judiciary but also the first religion and state that actually setup the independent Judiciary. Conclusion: The Islamic Law, the Law which Holy Prophet (SAW) delivered unto mankind for all times to come, this Law admits of no difference between man and man except in faith and religion. Those religious and social systems and political and cultural ideologies which differentiate between men on grounds of Race, Country or colour, can never become universal creeds or world ideologies for the simple reason that one belonging to a certain race cannot get transformed into another race, one born in certain country cannot tear asunder his entity from that place, nor can the whole world condense into one country, and the colour of negro, a Chinese and a white man cannot be changed. Such ideologies and social systems must remain conned to one race, community, or country. They are bound to be narrow, limited and nationalistic and cannot become universal. Islam, on the other hand, is universal ideology. Any person who declares belief in LA ILAHA ILLALLAH MUAMMAD-UR-RASULLULLAH enters the pale of Islam and entitles himself to the same rights as those of other Muslims. Islam makes no discrimination on the basis of race, country, colour, language, or the like. Its appeal is to the entire humanity and it admits of no narrow minded discriminations. This law is eternal. It is not based on the customs or traditions of any particulars people and is not meant for any particular period of human history. It is based on the same principles of the nature on which man has been created. And as that nature remains the same in all periods and under all circumstances, the law based on it unalloyed principles should also be applicable to every period and under all circumstances. And this universal and eternal religion is Islam.